Metaphysical

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Shamanism comprises a range of beliefs and practices concerned with communication with the spiritual world. It is a prominent term in anthropological research.² A practitioner of shamanism is known as a shaman, pronounced /ˈʃɑːmən/, /ˈʃeɪmən/, (|ˈshämən; ˈshā-|) noun (pl. -man(s)).³ There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the natural world and spirit worlds. They can treat ailments/illness by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit enables the physical body to undergo balance and wholeness. The shaman is capable of entering supernatural realms or dimensions in order to obtain answers to the problems of their community. The shaman is physically present in the natural world, but at the same time enters into another dimension—enabling for the travel of the soul. The shaman has many travels in this other dimension. Some travels may be to bring guidance to misguided souls, to separate evil spirits from the human souls, or to alleviate the soul of all elements enacting upon it to cause the illness. The shaman only affects the spiritual world, which in turn affects the natural world. The result is that the shaman has brought balance to a soul and this will result in creating balance for the soul. The creation of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, thus restored health for the human body.⁴.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Sociology 2.1 Role 2.1.1 Healer 2.1.2 Mediator 2.2 Function 2.2.1 Distinct types of shaman 2.2.2 Soul and spirit concepts 2.3 Ecological aspect 2.4 Economics 2.5 Beliefs 2.6 Knowledge 2.6.1 Initiation and learning 2.6.1.1 Shamanic illness 2.7 Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches 2.8 Ecological approaches, systems theory 3 Practice 3.1 Music, songs 3.2 Paraphernalia 4 History 4.1 Hypotheses on origins 4.2 Historical times 4.3 Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements 5 Regional variations 5.1 Gender and sexuality 5.2 Siberia 5.3 Europe 5.4 Asia 5.4.1 China 5.4.2 Korea 5.4.3 Japan 5.4.4 Cyprus 5.4.5 Other Asian traditions 5.5 Inuit and Eskimo cultures 5.5.1 Shamanistic features 5.5.2 Diversity, with some similarities 5.6 Africa 5.7 Americas 5.7.1 North America 5.7.2 Extirpation of Shamanism in North America 5.7.3 South America 5.7.4 Meso-American shamanism 5.7.5 Amazonia 5.7.6 Mapuche 5.7.7 Fuegians 5.8 Oceania 6 Criticism of the term “shaman” or “shamanism” 7 Shamanism and New Age movement 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

Etymology

The term "shaman" is a loan from the Turkic⁵⁶⁷⁸ word šamán, the term for such a practitioner, which also gained currency in the wider Turko-Mongol and Tungusic cultures in ancient Siberia. Shamanism played an important role in Altaic mythology. Tengriism which was the major belief of Xiongnu, Turkic, Hungarian and Bulgar peoples in ancient times incorporates elements of shamanism.

Sociology

Shamanism sociology study applies various empirical investigation methods and critical analysis to develop and refine a body of knowledge about shaman social structure and activity, often with the goal of applying such knowledge to the pursuit of social welfare.

Role

The shaman's social role may be defined by a set of connected behaviors, rights and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation and the expected behavior in a given individual within their cultural social status and social position.

Shamans are called upon by a higher power and are not self-chosen. Individuals who are called upon experience an illness of some sort over a prolonged period of time. This illness will prompt the individual to seek out spiritual guidance and other shaman healers. Such illnesses are usually not healed/curable by doctors and western medicine. The role of the shaman is a healer of the spirit world—chosen to bring spiritual balance and health for the people. The shaman heals through spiritual means that consequently affects the natural world by bringing about restored health.

Cultural anthropology approaches shamanism as the study of their culture, beliefs, and practices. The New Age movement has appropriated shamanism into modern practices.

Healer

The shaman may serve the healer's role in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and the power to heal by entering into the spiritual world or dimension. Often the shaman has, or acquires many spiritual guides in the spirit world; these are often spiritual guides whose sole purpose is to guide and direct the shaman in his/her travels. These spirtual guides are always present within the shaman and do not enter only when the shaman is in a trance. The spiritual guides energizes the shaman, enabling him/her to enter into the spiritual dimension. In the Quechua society, magic, magical force, and knowledge are denoted by one term yachay. The shaman heals within the spirutal dimension by creating balance and restoring all elements to their properties, thus bringing the soul back from wherever it has traveled. The result is the creation of balance in the natural world and restored health for the individual. The shaman also acts as destroyer in order to destroy the excess of negative energies that enables the soul to travel astray or pollutes the soul. This occurs as a result of the shaman's willingness to create balance and to bring about goodness for the individual.^{citation needed}

Mediator

Shaman act as "mediators" in their culture.⁹¹⁰ The shaman is seen as communicating with the spirits on behalf of the community, including the spirits of the deceased. The shaman is a messenger between the natural world and the spiritual dimension. He/she enables for the passing of information between the living and the deceased in order to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver monetary gifts back to the spiritual dimension. Many times unsettled issues can be resolved with monetary bribes in the form of paper money, which is burnt in order to be usable by the spiritual world. In some cultures, this mediator function of the shaman may be illustrated well by some of the shaman's objects and symbols. E.g. among the Selkups, a report mentions sea duck as a spirit-animal: ducks are capable of both flying, and diving underwater, thus they are regarded as belonging to both the upper world and the world underneath.¹¹ Similarly, the shaman and the jaguar are identified in some Amazonian cultures: the jaguar is capable of moving freely on the ground, in the water, and climbing trees (like the shaman's soul). In some Siberian cultures, it is some water fowl species that are associated to the shaman in a similar way, and the shaman is believed to take on its form.¹²

Function

Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures:¹³ healing;¹⁴¹⁵ leading a sacrifice;¹⁶ preserving the tradition by storytelling and songs;¹⁷ fortune-telling;¹⁸ acting as a psychopomp (literal meaning, “guide of souls”).¹⁹ In some cultures, a shaman may fulfill several functions in one person.¹³

The functions of a shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a cumulative group, depending on culture), and/or curing (healing) of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which may be cured by flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying some supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated, so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body) --, or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror (on account of some frightening experience), which may be likewise cured by similar methods. Usually in most languages a different term other than the one translated "shaman" is applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams.

To quote Mircea Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy."²⁰

Distinct types of shaman

In some cultures there may be additional types of shaman, who perform more specialized functions. For example, among the Nanai people, a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp.²¹ Other specialized shaman may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets, Enets, and Selkup shaman (paper;²² online²³). Among Huichol,²⁴ there are two categories of shaman. This demonstrates the differences among shaman within a single tribe.

Amongst the Hmong people, the shaman or the "shi yi", acts as healer. Shi Yi also performs rituals/ceremonies designed to call upon the soul from its many travels back to the physical human body. Shi Yi may use several shamanistic tools such as swords, divinity horns, a gong (drum), or finger bells/jingles. All tools serve to protect the spirits from the eyes of the unknown, thus enabling Shi Yi to deliver the souls back to its proper owner. Shi Yi may wear a white, red, or black veil to disguise the soul from its attackers in the spiritual dimension.

Soul and spirit concepts

The variety of functions described in the above section may seem to be rather distinct tasks, but the soul and spirit concepts may underlying to join them.

Soul

The soul concept can generally explain more, seemingly unassociated phenomena in shamanism:²⁵²⁶²⁷

Healing

may be based closely on the soul concepts of the belief system of the people served by the shaman (online¹⁴). It may consist of the retrieving the lost soul of the ill person.²⁸ See also the soul dualism concept.

Scarcity of hunted game

can be solved by “releasing” the souls of the animals from their hidden abodes. Besides that, many taboos may prescribe the behavior of people towards game, so that the souls of the animals do not feel angry or hurt, or the pleased soul of the already killed prey can tell the other, still living animals, that they can let themselves to be caught and killed.²⁹³⁰ The ecological aspect of shamanistic practice (and the related beliefs) has already been mentioned above in the article.

Infertility of women

can be cured by obtaining the soul of the expected child to be born.

Spirits

Also the beliefs related to spirits can explain many different phenomena too,³¹ for example, the importance of storytelling, or acting as a singer, can be understood better if we examine the whole belief system: a person who is able to memorize long texts or songs (and play an instrument) may be regarded as having achieved this ability through contact with the spirits (for example among Khanty people).³²

Ecological aspect

Resources for human consumption are easily depletable in tropical rainforests. In the Tucano Indian rainforest culture, a sophisticated system exists for resource management, and for avoiding the resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized in a mythological context, involving symbolism and in the belief that the breaking of hunting restrictions may cause illness. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. The shaman is able to “release” game animals (or their souls) from their hidden abodes,³³ The Desana shaman has to negotiate with a mythological being for souls of game.³⁴ Not only Tucanos, but the Piaroa rainforest Indians have ecological concerns related to their shamanism.³⁵ Besides Tukanos and Piaroa, also many Eskimo groups think that the shaman is able to fetch souls of game from remote places;³⁶³⁷ or undertake a soul travel in order to promote hunting luck, e.g. by asking for game from mythological beings (Sea Woman).³⁸

Economics

The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies among cultures. In many Eskimo groups, they provide services for the community and get a “due payment” (some cultures believe the payment is given to the helping spirits³⁹), but these goods are only “welcome addenda.” They are not enough to enable shamanizing as a full-time activity. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as hunter or housewife.³⁹⁴⁰

Beliefs

There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world; and several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1964)⁴ are the following:

• Spirits exist and they play important roles both in individual lives and in human society.
• The shaman can communicate with the spirit world.
• Spirits can be good or evil.
• The shaman can treat sickness caused by evil spirits.
• The shaman can employ trance inducing techniques to incite visionary ecstasy and go on "vision quests."
• The shaman's spirit can leave the body to enter the supernatural world to search for answers.
• The shaman evokes animal images as spirit guides, omens, and message-bearers.
• The shaman can tell the future, scry, throw bones/runes, and perform other varied forms of divination

Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living.⁴¹ Shamanism requires individualized knowledge and special abilities and operates outside established religions. Many shamans operate alone, although some take on an apprentice. Shamans can gather into associations, as Indian tantric practitioners have done.^{citation needed}

While the causes of disease are considered by many shamans to lie in the spiritual realm, being effected by malicious spirits or witchcraft, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman will "enter the body" of the patient to confront the spirit making the patient sick, and heal the patient by banishing the infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimen is often prescribed as treatment. In many places shamans claim to learn directly from the plants, and to be capable of harnessing their effects and healing properties only after obtaining permission from its abiding or patron spirit. In South America, individual spirits are summoned by the singing of songs called icaros; before a spirit can be summoned the spirit must teach the shaman its song.⁴¹ The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. Such practices are presumably very ancient; in about 368 BCE, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth".

The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many societies. Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community,^{citation needed} and is renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared.

By engaging in this work, the shaman is exposed to significant personal risk: risks from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter the shaman's state of consciousness. Some of the plant materials used can be toxic or fatal, and the failure to return from an out-of-body journey can lead to physical death. Spells are commonly used to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized.

Knowledge

The border between the shaman and the lay person is not always sharp:

“

Among the Barasana [of Brazil], there is no absolute difference between those men recognized as shamans and those who are not. At the lowest level, most adult men have some abilities as shamans and will carry out some of the same functions as those men who have a widespread reputation for their powers and knowledge.

”

The difference is that the shaman knows more myths and understands their meaning better, but the majority of adult men know many myths, too.⁴²

Similar can be observed among Eskimo peoples. Many laic people have felt experiences that are usually attributed to the shamans of those Eskimo groups: experiencing daydreaming, reverie, trance is not restricted to shamans.⁴³ It is the control over helping spirits that is characteristic mainly to shamans, the laic people use amulets, spells, formulas, songs.⁴³⁴⁴ In Greenland among the Inuit, there are laic people who may have the capability to have closer relationships with beings of the belief system than others. These people are apprentice shamans who failed to accomplish their learning process.⁴⁰

The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin, or "second spirit") knows many things about the associated beliefs; he or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behavior of the shaman.⁴⁵ In spite of this, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For his or her interpretative, accompanying role, it would be even unwelcome to fall into trance.⁴⁶

Initiation and learning

Shamanic powers may be inherited, whereas in other societies shamans are "called" by dreams or signs and require lengthy training.

Shamanic illness

Turner and colleagues⁴⁷ mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis. A rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in the calling of a shaman can be found in the detailed case history of Chuonnasuan, the last master shaman among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China.⁴⁸ In Sudan, the sanjak (shaman) experiences the shamanic call in "the form of affliction. The person selected by the spirit becomes severely ill for a prolonged period of time.... The affliction and cure are seen as the sign of his election. The phenomenon thus follows the lines of shamanism, where the initial affliction of the shaman serves as proof of his election."⁴⁹

Cognitive, semiotic, hermeneutic approaches

As mentioned, a (debated) approach explains the etymology of word “shaman” as meaning “one who knows”.⁵⁰⁵¹ Really, the shaman is a person who is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes through which this complex belief system appears, and has a comprehensive view on it in their mind with certainty of knowledge.⁵² The shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes. Shaman express meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects, such as amulets.⁵¹

The shaman knows the culture of his or her community well,⁵³⁵⁴⁵⁵ and acts accordingly. Thus, their audience knows the used symbols and meanings—that is why shamanism can be efficient: people in the audience trust it.⁵⁵ Such belief system can appear to its members with certainty of knowledge—this explains the above described etymology for the word “shaman”.⁵⁶

There are semiotic theoretical approaches to shamanism,⁵⁷⁵⁸⁵⁹ (“ethnosemiotics”). The symbols on the shaman's costume and drum can refer to Power animals, or to the rank of the shaman.

There are also examples of “mutually opposing symbols”, distinguishing a “white” shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a “black” shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night.⁶⁰ (Series of such opposing symbols referred to a world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map?).⁵²⁶¹ Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a “mythological mental map”.⁶²⁶³ Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept “grammar of mind”.⁶³⁶⁴ Linking to a Sami example, Kathleen Osgood Dana writes:⁶⁵

“

Juha Pentikäinen, in his introduction to Shamanism and Northern Ecology, explains how the Sámi drum embodies Sámi worldviews. He considers shamanism to be a ‘grammar of mind’ (10), because shaman need to be experts in the folklore of their cultures (11)

”

.

Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics,⁶⁶ “ethnohermeneutics”,⁶¹ approaches to the practice of interpretation. Hoppál extended the term to include not only the interpretation of oral or written texts, but also that of “visual texts as well (including motions, gestures and more complex ritual, and ceremonies performed for instance by shamans)”.⁶⁷ It can not only reveal the animistic views hiding behind shamanism, but also convey their relevance for the recent world, where ecological problems made paradigms about balance and protection valid.⁶³

Ecological approaches, systems theory

Other fieldworks use systems theory concepts and ecological considerations to understand the shaman's lore. Desana and Tucano Indians have developed a sophisticated symbolism and concepts of “energy” flowing between people and animals in cyclic paths. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to the changes how modern science (systems theory, ecology, some new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear way.³³ He suggests also a cooperation of modern science and indigenous lore (online⁶⁸)

Practice

Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Some of the methods for effecting such trances:

Plants (often psychoactive)	Other
Psilocybin mushrooms Cannabis Tobacco San Pedro cactus Peyote24 Ayahuasca41 Cedar Datura Deadly nightshade Fly agaric Iboga Morning glory Sweetgrass Sage Salvia divinorum	Drumming Dancing Singing Music Icaros / Medicine Songs41 Vigils Fasting Sweat lodge Vision quests Mariri Swordfighting / Bladesmithing

Shamans will often observe dietary or customary restrictions particular to their tradition. Sometimes these restrictions are more than just cultural. For example, the diet followed by shamans and apprentices prior to participating in an Ayahuasca ceremony includes foods rich in tryptophan (a biosynthetic precursor to serotonin) as well as avoiding foods rich in tyramine, which could induce hypertensive crisis if ingested with MAOIs such as are found in Ayahuasca brews.⁴¹

Music, songs

Just like shamanism itself,⁶⁹ music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse, far from being alike. In some cultures and several instances, some songs related to shamanism intend to imitate also natural sounds, sometimes via onomatopoiea.⁷⁰

Of course, in several cultures, imitation of natural sounds may serve other functions, not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals as luring game in the hunt;⁷¹ or entertainment (katajjaqs of Inuit).⁷¹⁷²

Paraphernalia

Shamans may have various kinds of paraphernalia in different cultures.

Drum - The Drum is used by shamans of several peoples in Siberia; the same holds for many Eskimo groups,⁷³ although its usage for shamanistic seances may be lacking among the Inuit of Canada.⁷⁴

The beating of the drum allows the shaman to achieve an altered state of consciousness or to travel on a journey. The drum is for example referred to as, “‘horse’ or ‘rainbow-bridge’ between the physical and spiritual worlds”.⁷⁵ The journey mentioned is one in which the shaman establishes a connection with one or two of the spirit worlds. With the beating of the drum come neurophysiological effects. Much fascination surround the role that the acoustics of the drum play to the shaman. Siberian shamans' drums are generally constructed of an animal-skin stretched over a bent wooden hoop, with a handle across the hoop.

There are two different worlds, the upper and the lower. In the upper world, images such as “climbing a mountain, tree, cliff, rainbow, or ladder; ascending into the sky on smoke; flying on an animal, carpet, or broom and meeting a teacher or guide”,⁷⁵ are typically seen. The lower world consists of images including, “entering into the earth through a cave, hollow tree stump, a water hole, a tunnel, or a tube”.⁷⁵ By being able to interact with a different world at an altered and aware state, the Shaman can then exchange information between the world in which he lives and that to which he has traveled.

Feathers - In numerous cultures, birds are seen as messengers of the spirits. Feathers are often used in ceremonies.

Rattle - Found mostly among South American⁷⁶ and African peoples. Also used in ceremonies among the Navajo and in traditional ways in their blessings and ceremonies.

Gong - Often found through South East Asia, Far Eastern peoples.

Didgeridoo and clap stick - Found mainly among the various aboriginal peoples of Australia.

Pipe Pipe used for smoking various psychoactive herbs (e.g. tobacco in South America, cannabis in India).

Sword - In the Hmong culture, a holly sword will always be used in the practice to protect the shaman from wondering "evil" spirits as he travel to the spirit world.

Shake - Found mostly in the Hmong culture, the shaman begins his practice by rattling, which turns into a shake. It is the process of communicating with his shamanistic spirits to guide him to the spirit world.

Long Table - A flexible wooden table approximately at a size of 9X2. Found in the Hmong Culture, the long table transforms into a "flying horse and boat" in the spirit world.

Rooster - A rooster is often used in the Hmong culture. A shaman uses a rooster when he journey his way to the unknown. It is said that the rooster shields the shaman from wondering "evil" spirits by making him invisible, thus the evil spirits only see a worthless rooster's spirit.

History

Hypotheses on origins

Shamanistic practices are claimed to predate all organized religions, dating back to the Paleolithic,⁷⁷⁷⁸ and certainly to the Neolithic period.⁷⁸

Archaeological evidence exists for Mesolithic shamanism. In November 2008, researchers announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that they regard as one of the earliest known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on the head, pelvis and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits," researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 at the site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture, but is said to be unlike any other among the Natufians or in the Paleolithic period.⁷⁹

Historical times

This section may contain previously unpublished synthesis of published material that conveys ideas not attributable to the original sources. See the talk page for details. (October 2009)

Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism,^{citation needed} as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, and Calypso among others,^{citation needed} as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion later merged into the Roman religion.^{citation needed}

During the early centuries AD the shamanic practices of many subject cultures were marginalized with the spread of Abrahamic religion throughout the Roman Empire and its northern neighbors.

Around 400 CE, institutional Christianity was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed or appropriated.

The Early Modern Period saw witch trials which eliminated lingering remnants of European shamanism (if "shamanism" can be properly used to describe the beliefs and practices of those cultures).

Spanish repression of shamanism forced Roman Catholicism upon the peoples of the Western Hemisphere as an integral part of Spanish colonization. In Latin America, Catholic priests dedicated to the destruction of non-Abrahamic traditions followed the Conquistadors, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed Diego de Landa.

In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. A similarly destructive story can be told of the encounter between Buddhists and shamans, e.g., in Mongolia (See Caroline Humphrey with Urgunge Onon, 1996).

Decline and revitalization / tradition-preserving movements

In many areas, former shamans ceased to fill the functions in the community they used to, as they felt mocked by their own community,⁸² or regarded their own past as a deprecated thing, sometimes even unwilling to talk about it to an ethnographer.⁸³

Moreover, besides personal communications of former shamans, even some folklore texts narrate directly about a deterioration process. For example, a Buryat epic text details the wonderful deeds of the ancient “first shaman” Kara-Gürgän:⁸⁴ he could even compete with God, create life, steal back the soul of the sick from God without his consent. A subsequent text laments that shamans of older times were stronger, possessing capabilities like omnividence,⁸⁵ fortune-telling even for decades in the future, moving as fast as bullet; the texts contrast them to the recent heartless, unknowing, greedy shamans.⁸⁶

In most affected areas, shamanistic practices ceased to exist, with authentic shamans died and their personal experiences following. The loss of memories is not always lessened by the fact the shaman is not always the only person in a community who knows the beliefs and motifs related to the local shamanhood (laics know myths as well, among Barasana, even though less;⁴² there are former shaman apprentices unable to complete the learning among some Greenlandic Inuit peoples,⁴⁰ moreover, even laics can have trance-like experiences among Eskimos;⁴³ the assistant of a shaman can be extremely knowledgeable among Oroqen⁴⁵⁴⁶). Although the shaman is often believed and trusted exactly because he/she "accommodates" to the "grammar" of the beliefs of the community,⁵⁵ but several parts of the knowledge related to the local shamanhood consist of personal experiences of the shaman (illness), or root in his/her family life (the interpretation of the symbolics of his/her drum),⁸⁷ thus, these are lost with his/her death. Besides of this, in many cultures, the entire traditional belief system has become endangered (often together with a partial or total language shift), the other people of the community remembering the associated beliefs and practices (or the language at all) became old or died, many folklore memories (songs, texts) went forgotten—this may threaten even such peoples which could preserve their isolation until the middle of the 20^th century, like the Nganasan.⁸⁸

Some areas could enjoy a prolonged resistance due to their remoteness.

• Variants of shamanism among Eskimo peoples were once a widespread (and very diverse) phenomenon, but today are rarely practiced, and they were already in the decline among many groups even in the times when the first major ethnological researches were done,⁸⁹ e.g. among Polar Eskimos, in the end of 19th century, Sagloq died, the last shaman who was believed to be able to travel to the sky and under the sea—and many other former shamanic capacities were lost in that time as well, like ventriloquism and sleight-of-hand.⁹⁰
• The isolated location of Nganasan people allowed shamanism to be a living phenomenon among them even in the beginning of 20^th century,⁹¹ the last notable Nganasan shaman's séances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.⁹²

After exemplifying the general decline even in the most remote areas, let us mention that there are some revitalization or tradition-preserving efforts as a response. Besides collecting the memories,⁹³ there are also some tradition-preserving⁹⁴ and even revitalization efforts,⁹⁵ sometimes led by authentic former shamans (for example among Sakha people⁹⁶ and Tuvans⁸¹). However, according to Richard L. Allen, Research & Policy Analyst for the Cherokee Nation, they are overwhelmed with fraudulent Shaman. "One may assume that anyone claiming to be a Cherokee "shaman, spiritual healer, or pipe-carrier," is equivalent to a modern day medicine show and snake-oil vendor."⁹⁷ In fact, there is no Cherokee word for Shaman or Medicine Man. The Cherokee word for "medicine" is Nvowti which means "power".

Besides tradition-preserving efforts, there are also neoshamansistic movements, these may differ from many tradtitional shamanistic practice and beliefs in several points.⁹⁸ Admittedly, several traditional beliefs systems indeed have ecological considerations (for example, many Eskimo peoples), and among Tukano people, the shaman indeed has directly resource-protecting roles, see details in section Ecological aspect.

Today, shamanism survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practices continue today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and even in cities, towns, suburbs, and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially true for Africa and South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread.

Regional variations

Gender and sexuality

While male shamans are predominant in many cultures, native Korean and some African Nguni cultures have had a preference for females. Recent archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the Upper Paleolithic era in what is now the Czech Republic—were women.⁹⁹

Shamans may exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress, attributes, role or function of the opposite sex, gender fluidity and/or same-sex sexual orientation. This practice is common, and found among the Chukchi, Sea Dayak, Patagonians, Araucanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navajo, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Indeed, these two-spirited shamans were so widespread as to suggest a very ancient origin of the practice. See, for example, Joseph Campbell's map in his The Historical Atlas of World Mythology [Vol I: The Way of the Animal Powers: Part 2: p. 174] Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful, and Shamanism so important to ancestral populations that it may have contributed to the maintenance of genes for transgendered individuals in breeding populations over evolutionary time through the mechanism of "kin selection." [see final chapter of E.O. Wilson's "Sociobiology: The New Synthesis] They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates.

Duality and bisexuality are also found in the shamans of the Dagara people of Burkina Faso (Africa). References to this can be found in several works of Malidoma Somé, a writer who was born and initiated there.

Siberia

Among the Siberian Chukchis peoples, a shaman is interpreted as someone who is possessed by a spirit who demands that someone assume the shamanic role for their people. Among the Buryat, there is a ritual known as "shanar" whereby a candidate is consecrated as shaman by another, already-established shaman.

Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of shamanism.¹⁰⁰ It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its Uralic, Altaic, and Paleosiberian peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of “shamanism” were recorded among Siberian peoples.

Among several Samoyedic peoples shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times (Nganasans).¹⁰¹ The last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.¹⁰¹¹⁰²

When the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949 and the border with Russian Siberia was formally sealed, many nomadic Tungus groups that practiced shamanism were confined in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. These include the Ewenki and the Oroqen. The last shaman of the Oroqen, Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu), died in October 2000.

In many other cases, shamanism was in decline even at the beginning of 20^th century (Selkups).¹⁰³

Europe

While shamanism had a strong tradition in Europe before the rise of monotheism, shamanism remains as a traditional, organized religion in Uralic, Altaic people and Huns; and also in Mari-El and Udmurtia, two semi-autonomous provinces of Russia with large Finno-Ugric minority populations. Shamanism in Scandinavia may be represented in rock art dating to the Neolithic era¹⁰⁴ and was practiced throughout the Iron Age by the various Teutonic tribes and the Baltic-Finnic peoples.¹⁰⁵ Some peoples, which used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. For example, many Uralic peoples live now outside Siberia, however the original location of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined phytogeographical and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River.¹⁰⁶ The ancestors of Hungarian people or Magyars have wandered from their ancestral proto-Uralic area to the Pannonian Basin. Shamanism played an important role in Altaic mythology. Tengriism, the major belief among Xiongnu, Turkic peoples, Magyars and Bulgars in ancient times incorporates elements of shamanism.

There are currently no known historically verifiable accounts that compare the practices of the Druids of Britain to Shamanistic practices though some research has been undertaken regarding the bog bodies ¹⁰⁷ in regard to the bodies being shamans and also to Norse seiðr¹⁰⁸ . Shamanism is no more a living practice among Hungarians, but some remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore, in folktales, customs.¹⁰⁹

Asia

China

Chinese shamanism has the longest recorded history in the world. The word wu 巫 "shaman; spirit medium; healer" first appeared on oracle bones from the late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1600-1046 BCE). Chinese classics from the Zhou Dynasty (1045-256 BCE) provide details about male and female shamans serving as exorcists, healers, rainmakers, oneiromancers, soothsayers, and officials. Ever since Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141-87 BCE) established Confucianism as the "state religion", the male-dominated Confucian ruling class has marginalized shamanism, especially female shamans. Shamanic practices continue in present day Chinese culture.

Korea

Shamanism is still practiced in South Korea, where the role of a shaman is most frequently taken by women known as mudangs, while male shamans (rare) are called baksoo mudangs. Korean shamans are considered to be from a low class.

A person can become a shaman through hereditary title or through natural ability. Shamans are consulted in contemporary society for financial and marital decisions.

Japan

The Japanese call Shamansim "Shinto," the distinction is that Shinto is Shamanism for agricultural society. Today Shinto has morphed with Buddhism and other Japanese folk culture. The book "Occult Japan: Shinto, Shamanism and the Way of the Gods" by Percival Lowell delves further into researching Japanese Shamanism or Shintoism.¹¹⁰ Shinto currently has about 119 million known adherents in Japan,¹¹¹ although a person who practices any manner of Shinto rituals may be so counted. It is generally accepted that the vast majority of Japanese people take part in Shinto rituals. In the book "Japan Through the Looking Glass: Shaman to Shinto" uncovers the extraordinary aspects of Japanese beliefs¹¹²¹¹³

Cyprus

The modern-day folk dances of the Middle Eastern island of Cyprus have been argued to originate from ancient shamanist ceremonies and "early religious and incantational worship".¹¹⁴ The country was one of the last centres of ancient female-lead shamanistic Goddess rites in the Mediterranean, where the so-called Double Goddesses were worshiped.¹¹⁵ Ancient Cypriot healers used special rituals, charms and incantations in their practices, as well as herbs and spices including frankincense, myrrh, olive oil. Medicine was also linked to the Phoenician gods Astarte and Baal. Healers and magi still exist in Cyprus today,¹¹⁶¹¹⁷ and a study by Harvard University suggests that, during Biblical times, "the island of Cyprus was in fact reputed for magia", a variant which was relatively "more recent" than the Persian (Zoroastrian) and Jewish traditions which would have influenced the island.¹¹⁸ Additionally, Gypsies, who first arrived in Cyprus between 1322 and 1400 from the Levantine mainland, are known for fortune telling by palm reading.¹¹⁹

Other Asian traditions

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There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of some Central Asians, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols, and Manchu beginning in the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as a major religion under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty and the Manchurian Qing dynasty. However, in the shamanic cultures still practiced by various ethnic groups in areas such as Nepal and northern India, shamans are not necessarily considered enlightened, and often are even feared for their ability to use their power to carry out malicious intent.^{citation needed}

In Tibet, the Nyingma schools in particular, had a Tantric tradition that had married "priests" known as Ngakpas or Ngakmas/mos (fem.). The Ngakpas were often employed or commissioned to rid the villages of demons or disease, creations of protective amulets, the carrying out of religious rites etc. The Ngakpas should however, been grounded in Buddhist philosophy and not simply another form of shaman, but sadly, this was most often not the case. There have always been, however, highly realised and accomplished ngakpas. They were in their own right great lamas who were of equal status as lamas with monastic backgrounds. The monasteries, as in many conventional religious institutions, wished to preserve their own traditions, sometimes at the expense of others. The monasteries depended upon the excesses of patrons for support. This situation often led to a clash between the more grassroots and shamanic character of the travelling Chödpa and Ngakpa culture and the more conservative religious monastic system.^{120not in citation given}

Shamanism is still widely practiced in the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa), where shamans are known as 'Noro' (all women) and 'Yuta'. 'Noro' generally administer public or communal ceremonies while 'Yuta' focus on civil and private matters. Shamanism is also practiced in a few rural areas in Japan proper. It is commonly believed that the Shinto religion is the result of the transformation of a shamanistic tradition into a religion. Forms of practice vary somewhat in the several Ryukyu islands, so that there is, e.g., a distinct Miyako shamanism.

Some practices also seem to have been preserved in the Catholic religious traditions of aborigines in Taiwan¹²¹ and some Kazakhs.

In Vietnam, shamans conduct rituals in many of the religious traditions that co-mingle in the majority and minority populations. In their rituals, music, dance, special garments and offerings are part of the performance that surround the spirit journey.¹²²

Inuit and Eskimo cultures

Eskimo groups comprise a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.^3043124

As for terminology used in the article: the term Eskimo has fallen out of favour in Canada and Greenland, where it is considered pejorative and the term Inuit has become more common. However, Eskimo is still considered acceptable among Alaska Natives of Yupik and Inupiaq (Inuit) heritage, and is preferred over Inuit as a collective reference. To date, no replacement term for Eskimo inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people has achieved acceptance across the geographical area inhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples. The Inuit and Yupik languages together constitute one branch within the Eskimo-Aleut language family alongside the Aleut branch. (The Sireniki Eskimo language is sometimes proposed to form a third branch of the Eskimo,^125126127 but sometimes it is regarded as belonging to the Yupik languages.¹²⁸) The languages of the Eskimo branch have certain common characteristics (compared to Aleut) which justifies "splitting off" the Eskimo branch inside the Eskimo-Aleut family.

Shamanistic features

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When speaking of “shamanism” in various Eskimo groups, we must remember that (as mentioned above) the term “shamanism” can cover certain characteristics of various different cultures.⁵² Mediation is regarded often as an important aspect of shamanism in general.¹²⁹ Also in most Eskimo groups, the role of mediator is known well:¹³⁰ the person filling it in is actually believed to be able to contact the beings who populate the belief system. Term “shaman” is used in several English-language publications also in relation to Eskimos.^43124131132 Also the /aˈliɣnalʁi/ of the Asian Eskimos is translated as “shaman” in the Russian¹³³ and English¹³⁰ literature.

The belief system assumes specific links between the living people, the souls of hunted animals, and those of dead people.¹³⁴ The soul concepts of several groups are specific examples of soul dualism (showing variability in details in the various cultures).

Like most cultures labelled as “shamanistic”, the Eskimo groups have several special features, or at least ones that are not present in all shamanistic cultures. Unlike in many Siberian cultures, the careers of most Eskimo shamans lack the motivation of force: becoming a shaman is usually a result of deliberate consideration, not a necessity forced by the spirits.⁴⁰

Diversity, with some similarities

Another possible concern: do the belief systems of various Eskimo groups have such common features at all, that would justify any mentioning them together? There was no political structure above the groups, their languages were relative, but differed more or less, often forming language continuums (online¹²⁷).

There are some similarities in the cultures of the Eskimo groups^{135136137138139} together with diversity, far from homogeneity.¹⁴⁰

The Russian linguist Меновщиков, an expert of Siberian Yupik and Sireniki Eskimo languages (while admitting that he is not a specialist in ethnology¹⁴¹) mentions, that the shamanistic seances of those Siberian Yupik and Sireniki groups he has seen have many similarities to those of Greenland Inuit groups described by Fridtjof Nansen,¹⁴² although a large distance separates Siberia and Greenland. There may be certain similarities also in Asiatic groups with some North American ones.¹⁴³ Also the usage of a specific shaman's language is documented among several Eskimo groups, used mostly for talking to spirits.¹⁴⁴¹⁴⁵ Also the Ungazighmiit (belonging to Siberian Yupiks) had a special allegoric usage of some expressions.¹⁴⁶

The local cultures showed great diversity. The myths concerning the role of shaman had several variants, and also the name of their protagonists varied from culture to culture. For example, a mythological figure, usually referred to in the literature by the collective term Sea Woman, has factually many local names: Nerrivik “meat dish” among Polar Inuit, Nuliayuk “lubricous” among Netsilingmiut, Sedna “the nether one” among Baffin Land Inuit.¹⁴⁷ Also the soul conceptions, e.g. the details of the soul dualism showed great variability, ranging from guardianship to a kind of reincarnation. Conceptions of spirits or other beings had also many variants (see e.g. the tupilaq concept).¹⁴⁸

Africa

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Some forms of African traditional religion are sometimes also subsumed under "shamanism".^{citation needed} In central Mali, Dogon sorcerers (both male and female) claim to have communication with a head deity named Ama, who advises them on healing and divination practices.

In the early 19th century traditional healers in parts of Africa were often referred to in a derogatory manner as "witch doctors" practicing Juju by early European settlers and explorers.The San or Bushmen ancestors who were primarily scattered in Southern Africa before the 19th century, are reported to have practiced a practice similar to shamanism. In areas in Eastern Free State and Lesotho, where they co-existed with the early Sotho tribes, local folklore describes them to have lived in caves where they drew pictures on cave walls during a trance and were also reputed to be good rain makers.

• The classical meaning of "shaman" as a person who, after recovering from a mental "illness" (of "insanity") takes up the professional calling of socially-recognized religious practitioner, is exemplified among the Sisala (of northern Gold Coast) : "the fairies “seized” him and made him insane for several months. Eventually, though, he learned to control their power, which he now uses to divine."¹⁴⁹
• The term "sangoma", as employed in Zulu and congeneric languages, is effectively equivalent to 'shaman'.^{dubious – discuss}
• The term "nganga" is equivalent to 'shaman'^{dubious – discuss} as used by the Karanga, among whom remedies for ailments are discovered by the nganga being informed in a dream, by a deity, of the herb able to effect the cure and also of where that herb is to be found.
• Shamanism is known among the Nuba of Kordofan in Sudan.¹⁵⁰¹⁵¹

Americas

North America

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Native American and First Nations cultures have diverse religious beliefs. There was never one universal Native American religion or spiritual system. Though many Native American cultures have traditional healers, ritualists, singers, mystics, lore-keepers and "Medicine People", none of them ever used, or use, the term "shaman" to describe these religious leaders. Rather, like other indigenous cultures the world over, their spiritual functionaries are described by words in their own languages, and in many cases are not taught to outsiders.

Many of these indigenous religions have been grossly misrepresented by outside observers and anthropologists, even to the extent of superficial or seriously mistaken anthropological accounts being taken as more authentic than the accounts of actual members of the cultures and religions in question. Often these accounts suffer from "Noble Savage"-type romanticism and racism. Some contribute to the fallacy that Native American cultures and religions are something that only existed in the past, and which can be mined for data despite the opinions of Native communities.¹⁵²

Not all Indigenous communities have roles for specific individuals who mediate with the spirit world on behalf of the community. Among those that do have this sort of religious structure, spiritual methods and beliefs may have some commonalities, though many of these commonalities are due to some nations being closely-related, from the same region, or through post-Colonial governmental policies leading to the combining of formerly-independent nations on reservations. This can sometimes lead to the impression that there is more unity among belief systems than there was in antiquity.

Navajo medicine men, known as "Hatałii", use several methods to diagnose the patient's ailments. These may include using special tools such as crystal rocks, and abilities such as hand-trembling and trances, sometimes accompanied by chanting. The Hatałii will select a specific healing chant for that type of ailment. Navajo healers must be able to correctly perform a healing ceremony from beginning to end. If they do not, the ceremony will not work. Training a Hatałii to perform ceremonies is extensive, arduous, and takes many years, and is not unlike priesthood. The apprentice learns everything by watching his teacher, and memorizes the words to all the chants. Many times, a medicine man cannot learn all sixty of the traditional ceremonies, so he will opt to specialize in a select few.

Extirpation of Shamanism in North America

With the arrival of foreign European settlers and colonial administration, the practice of shamanism was discouraged.

During the late 19th Century a shamanic mass movement, the Ghost Dance, swept through many tribes of Native Americans, First Nations. The belief was that through practicing the shamanic dance a great flood would come and all the invading foreigners would die. This form of shamanism was brutally suppressed by the United States Government's military. In the massacre of Wounded Knee, a whole band of Lakota Sioux under Chief Big Foot were gunned down with automatic Hotchkiss guns and left to die in a snow storm.

During the last hundred years, thousands of surviving Native Americans, First Nations youngsters from many cultures were sent into Indian boarding schools to destroy any tribal, shamanic or totemic faith.

South America

Panama: Shamanic healing is found among indigenous the Kuna people of Panama, who rely on sacred talismans. As such, they enjoy a popular position among local peoples.

Peru: The Urarina of the Peruvian Amazonia have an elaborate cosmological system predicated on the ritual consumption of ayahuasca. Urarina ayahuasca shamanism is a key feature of this poorly documented society.¹⁵³

Brazil: Among the Brazilian Tapirape shamans are called to serve in their dreams.

Ecuador: The Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, would apprentice themselves to become a shaman.

Santo Daime and União do Vegetal ( abbreviated to UDV) are syncretic religions with elements of shamanism. They use an entheogen called Ayahuasca to connect with the spirit realm and receive divine guidance.⁴¹

Meso-American shamanism

The Maya people of Guatemala, Belize, and Southern Mexico practice a highly sophisticated form of shamanism based upon astrology and a form of divination known as "the blood speaking", in which the shaman is guided in divination and healing by pulses in the veins of his arms and legs.

In contemporary Nahuatl, shamanism is known as cualli ohtli ('the good path') leading (during dreaming by 'friends of the night') to Tlalocán.

Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland

Shamanic practices are also present in tribes in northern Canada, such the animism and shamanism of the Chipewyan and of the Cree.

Amazonia

In the Peruvian Amazon Basin and north coastal regions of the country, the healer shamans are known as curanderos. Ayahuasqueros are Peruvian shamans, such as among the Urarina, who specialize in the use of ayahuasca, a psychedelic herbal potion used for physical and psychological healing, divine revelation, and for the very reproduction of society itself.¹⁵³ Ayahuasqueros have become popular among Western spiritual seekers, who claim that the shamans and their ayahuasca brews have cured them of everything from depression to addiction to cancer.⁴¹

In addition to Peruvian shaman’s (curanderos) use of rattles, and their ritualized ingestion of mescaline-bearing San Pedro cactuses (Trichocereus pachanoi) for the divinization and diagnosis of sorcery, north-coastal shamans are famous throughout the region for their intricately complex and symbolically dense healing altars called mesas (tables). Sharon (1993) has argued that the mesas symbolize the dualistic ideology underpinning the practice and experience of north-coastal shamanism.¹⁵⁴ For Sharon, the mesas are the, "physical embodiment of the supernatural opposition between benevolent and malevolent energies” (Dean 1998:61).¹⁵⁵

In the Amazon Rainforest, at several Indian groups the shaman acts also as a manager of scarce ecological resources (paper;³³³⁵ online⁶⁸). The rich symbolism behind Tukano shamanism has been documented in some in-depth field works^33156157 even in the last decades of the 20^th century. For variations in shamanism among the several Tukano tribes, see : "Shamans, Prophets, Priests, and Pastors." For individual tribes of the Tukano, separate reports have been published, such as "Desana Shamanism".

The yaskomo of the Waiwai is believed to be able to perform a soul flight. The soul flight can serve several functions:

• healing
• flying to the sky to consult cosmological beings (the moon or the brother of the moon) to get a name for a new-born baby
• flying to the cave of peccaries' mountains to ask the father of peccaries for abundance of game
• flying deep down in a river, to achieve the help of other beings.

Thus, a yaskomo is believed to be able to reach sky, earth, water, in short, every element.¹⁵⁸

Shamanism among the Yąnomamö (of the Venezolano Amazonas and the Brazilian Roraima) is described in Tales of the Yanomami by Jacques Lizot.

There is Asuriní shamanism of Pará, Brazil.

Harakmbut shamanism (of Peru) involves curing by dream-interpretion.

Among other literature on South American tropical forest shamanism are:-

• In Darkness and Secrecy. (for various tribes north of the Amazon)

Mapuche

Among the Mapuche people of South America, the community "shaman", usually a woman, is known as the Machi, and serves the community by performing ceremonies to cure diseases, ward off evil, influence the weather and harvest, and by practicing other forms of healing such as herbalism.

Fuegians

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Although Fuegians (the indigenous peoples of Tierra del Fuego) were all hunter-gatherers,¹⁵⁹ they did not share a common culture. The material culture was not homogenous, either: the big island and the archipelago made two different adaptations possible. Some of the cultures were coast-dwelling, others were land-oriented.¹⁶⁰¹⁶¹

Both Selk'nam and Yámana had persons filling in shaman-like roles. The Selk'nams believed their /xon/s to have supernatural capabilities, e.g. to control weather.¹⁶²¹⁶³ The figure of /xon/ appeared in myths, too.¹⁶⁴ The Yámana /jekamuʃ/¹⁶⁵ corresponds to the Selknam /xon/.¹⁶⁶

Oceania

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On the island of Papua New Guinea, indigenous tribes believe that illness and calamity are caused by dark spirits, or masalai, which cling to a person's body and "poison" them. Shamans, such as the one pictured to the right, are summoned in order to "purge" the unwholesome spirits from a person.¹⁶⁷¹⁶⁸ Shamans also perform rain-making ceremonies and can allegedly improve a hunter's ability to catch animals.¹⁶⁹

In Australia various aboriginal groups refer to their "shamans" as "clever men" and "clever women" also as kadji. These Aboriginal shamans use maban or mabain, the material that is believed to give them their purported magical powers. Besides healing, contact with spiritual beings, involvement in initiation and other secret ceremonies, they are also enforcers of tribal laws, keepers of special knowledge and may "hex" to death one who breaks a social taboo by singing a song only known to the "clever men".

See for example, Umbarra (King Merriman).

Criticism of the term “shaman” or “shamanism”

Certain anthropologists, most notably Alice Kehoe in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking, are highly critical of the term. Part of this criticism involves the notion of cultural appropriation.^{citation needed} This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of Shamanism, which may not only misrepresent or 'dilute' genuine indigenous practices but do so in a way that, according to Kehoe, reinforces racist ideas such as the Noble Savage.

Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade's work. Eliade, being a philosopher and historian of religions rather than an anthropologist, had never done any field work or made any direct contact with 'shamans' or cultures practicing 'shamanism', though he did spend four years studying at the University of Calcutta in India where he received his doctorate based on his Yoga thesis and was acquainted with Mahatma Gandhi. According to Kehoe, Eliade's 'shamanism' is an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, what some scholars of shamanism treat as being definitive of shamanism, most notably drumming, trance, chanting, entheogens and hallucinogenics, spirit communication and healing, are practices that

• exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and play similar roles even in non-shamanic cultures (such as the role of chanting in Judeo-Christian rituals)
• in their expression are unique to each culture that uses them and cannot be generalized easily, accurately or usefully into a global ‘religion’ such as shamanism.

Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of the notion that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period.

Mihály Hoppál also discusses whether the term “shamanism” is appropriate. He recommends using the term “shamanhood”¹⁷⁰ or “shamanship”¹⁷¹ for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. This is a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20^th century. He believes that this term is less general and places more stress on the local variations,⁶⁹ and it emphasizes also that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas, but linked to the everyday life in a practical way.¹⁷² Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift.¹⁷⁰ Also Piers Vitebsky mentions, that despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although, as for the past, their existence is not impossible).¹⁷³

See books and small online materials on this topic.¹⁷⁴

Shamanism and New Age movement

The New Age movement has appropriated some ideas from shamanism as well as beliefs and practices from Eastern religions and Native American cultures. As with other such appropriations, the original practitioners of these traditions frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood, sensationalized, or superficially understood and/or applied.¹⁷⁵ Some Nanai shamans experienced performances on the stage as dangerous: inappropriate (untimely, superfluous) invocation of the helping spirits can raise their anger.¹⁷⁶

There is an endeavor in some occult and esoteric circles to reinvent shamanism in a modern form, drawing from core shamanism—a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by the controversial Michael Harner—often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance, and Harner's interpretations of various indigenous religions. Harner has faced much criticism for implying that pieces of diverse religions can be taken out of context to form some sort of "universal" shamanic tradition. Some of these neoshamans also focus on the ritual use of entheogens, as well as chaos magic whilst others have created their own forms of shamanism such as Jan Fries¹⁷⁷.

European-based Neoshamanic traditions are focused upon the researched or imagined traditions of ancient Europe, where many mystical practices and belief systems were suppressed by the Christian church. Some of these practitioners express a desire to practice a system that is based upon their own ancestral traditions. Some anthropologists and practitioners have discussed the impact of such "neoshamanism" as 'giving extra pay' (Harvey, 1997 and elsewhere) to indigenous American traditions, particularly as many Pagan- or Heathen-'shamanic practitioners' of legitimate cultural traditions do not call themselves shamans, but instead use specific names derived from the older European traditions - the völva or seidkona (seid-woman) of the sagas being an example (see Blain 2002, Wallis 2003).

Many New Age spiritual seekers travel to Peru to work with ayahuasqueros, shamans who engage in the ritual use of ayahuasca, a psychedelic tea which has been documented to cure everything from depression to addiction. When taking ayahuasca, participants frequently report meeting spirits and receiving divine revelations.⁴¹ Shamanism has also been used in New Age therapies which use enactment and association with other realities as an intervention¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹ (see also Plastic shaman)

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• Chinese Shamanka - Short documentary about mop-nyit ceremony in Sichuan.
• A. Asbjorn Jon. "Shamanism and the Image of the Teutonic Deity, Óðinn" (pdf). http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol10/pdf/teuton.pdf.  It considers cross cultural similarities in shamanic belief.
• Lintrop, Aado. "Studies in Siberian Shamanism and Religions of the Finno-Ugrian Peoples". Folk Belief and Media Group of the Estonian Literary Museum. http://haldjas.folklore.ee/~aado/. 
• NAFPS - New Age Frauds and Plastic Shamans is a First Nations (American Indian) group devoted to alerting seekers about fraudulent teachers, and helping them avoid being exploited or participating in exploitation.
• Richard, Noll; Shi, Kun (2004). "Chuonnasuan (Meng Jin Fu). The Last Shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China" (pdf). Journal of Korean Religions (6): 135–162. http://www.desales.edu/assets/desales/SocScience/Oroqen_shaman_FSSForumAug07.pdf.  It describes the life of Chuonnasuan, the last shaman of the Oroqen of Northeast China.
• Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff (July 1999). "A View from the Headwaters". The Ecologist 29 (4). http://www.theecologist.info/page9.html.  It discusses the symbolics of shamanism of Amazonian indigenous groups, and also its "ecological" functions: avoiding the depletion of scare resources.
• Sem, Tatyana. "Shamanic Healing Rituals". Russian Museum of Ethnography. http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/changing/journey/healing.html. 
• Shamanism in Siberia
• The Spirit Foundation An NGO protecting cultural aspects of shamanism including the international shamananic network
• AFECT A charitable cultural organization protecting deep shamanism in northern Thailand
• (streamed) The shaman — trailer. Nganasan tribe. Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbVnsS4VuDI. 
• (streamed) Videos of Tatiana Urkachan Tungus Shaman Woman. Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/user/ekadasarudra. 

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